46 pages • 1 hour read
B. F. SkinnerBeyond Freedom and Dignity
Nonfiction | Book | Adult | Published in 1971A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.
Chapter 1Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Chapter 1 Summary: “A Technology of Behavior”
When faced with problems, humans consult science and technology to create solutions. However, Skinner claims that science and technology are causing new issues, many of which will impact future generations. For the sake of humanity, people must repair the damage they have caused, and changes in human behavior must take priority. As such, Skinner calls for a technology of human behavior, which would foster efficient social change so humans could better address social and environmental dilemmas.
According to Skinner, social sciences have not evolved as much as physical sciences. While ancient scientific ideas are now obsolete, ancient philosophers like Plato and Aristotle are still considered relevant. This lack of scientific development has stunted governmental, educational, and economic progress. Although human behavior is complex, the scientific process is adapted to studying complex natural phenomena, and it can be used to understand human behavior and enact social change. Skinner suggests that scientific principles have not been applied to human behavior because behavior is often separated from the body and attributed to an “indwelling agent,” or free will.
The need for social change is expressed in emotional terms: “[W]e need to change attitudes toward children, overcome pride in size of family or in sexual potency, build some sense of responsibility toward offspring” (10). Emotional language is not used in other branches of science because it is ineffective. In the past, human behavior was attributed to divine intervention, and modern humans attribute behavior to physical events. Some experts, including Freud, have suggested that all mental activities are physiological, but most still regard behavior as separate from physiological phenomena. The notion that behavior is separate from physiology ignores the function of behavior. For instance, people are likely to accept simple answers, like someone wanted to attend a show and thus did. In contrast, a technology of behavior would look for deeper reasons for the person’s attendance, such as relevant past experiences.
Human behaviors are attributed to an inner “autonomous man,” but this attribution arises from ignorance. A technology of human behavior would seek underlying explanations for behavior; this approach has not been implemented because humans feel a yet-indefinable sense of free will. The theory of evolution shows that the environment is not a passive background. Rather, it actively, albeit inconspicuously, shapes living things via natural selection. Similarly, the environment shapes behavior by providing stimuli to which organisms respond—a process termed “reflex.” Neurologist Ivan Pavlov demonstrated behavioral reflected through his well-known experiments on behavioral conditioning.
Behavior is determined by consequences. However, the concept of autonomous man is culturally pervasive and remains largely unchallenged; people are held accountable for their actions despite the fact that some external influences are recognized as impacting behaviors. The unpredictability of behavior is often cited as proof of autonomy, but as science advances, behavior becomes more predictable. A technology of behavior would question how and why a behavior arises and would remove both blame and credit from the acting individual. Freedom, dignity, and values obstruct a technology of behavior, and the remainder of the text will examine these conflicts.
Readers do not need to understand the scientific details of behavioral analysis to follow the arguments. Behavioral experiments will help identify features and causes of behavior, and proof of behavioral determinism will lie in the analytical process. Skinner warns that his writing may seem inconsistent because of linguistic limits and asserts that he uses informal language to accommodate lay readers.
Chapter 1 Analysis
The chapter begins by asserting that unchecked technological advancements have created multiple social and environmental issues: Sanitation and medicine have made the problems of overpopulation more acute, war has acquired a new horror with the invention of nuclear weapons, and the affluence pursuit of happiness is largely responsible for pollution” (3). This discussion introduces a key theme, The Necessity of a Scientific Approach to Solve Social Problems. Through this discussion, the theme of The Ethical Implications of Behavioral Modification is implicitly introduced, as Skinner indicates that scientifically modifying human behavior to elicit positive social outcomes is more ethical than respecting the concept of free will.
Skinner takes a behaviorist approach. This holds that behavior is determined, or caused by environmental and physiological factors; however, social structures are based on the opposing idea that humans have free will. This view introduces another key theme, Behavioral Determinism Versus Autonomous Man. Throughout the text, Skinner promotes his behaviorist views, arguing that a technology of behavior can be implemented to create a utopian society.
Skinner asserts that his text is universally important and uses a writing style suitable for lay readers rather than scientists. He writes: “The book could have been written for a technical reader without expressions of that sort, but the issues are important to the nonsocialist and need to be discussed in a nontechnical fashion” (24). Skinner bridges the gap between the public and the scientific community. To accommodate his lay reader audience, Skinner incorporates various literary devices. Some serve to illustrate his claims, such as when he uses the exemplum of a person going to a theater in his discussion on how behaviors emerge. He uses other devices to engage with the reader, such as this series of rhetorical questions:
Was putting a man on the moon actually easier than improving education in our public schools? Or than constructing better kinds of living space for everyone? Or than making it possible for everyone to be gainfully employed and, as a result, to enjoy a higher standard of living? (6).
This line of questioning encourages the reader to think critically. Skinner’s matter-of-fact tone implies that his stance is common sense, and emphasizes The Necessity of a Scientific Approach to Solve Social Problems.
A potential critique is that Skinner’s literary and rhetorical methods reveal inconsistencies and assumptions. One could argue that Skinner fails to acknowledge biases, and that he often fails to produce supporting evidence, instead relying on anecdotes or declarations. For instance, he argues that, since people still study ancient philosophers, social science has not significantly evolved, a claim he does not substantiate. At times like this, he relies on impassioned language rather than facts to persuade the reader.
Another potential critique is that Skinner’s linguistic choices suggest various points of bias. Arguably, the most prominent instance is the portrayal of the male as the norm or as superior. This arises through the exclusive use of the term “man” and of masculine pronouns, and is reflective of the historical context of the text. Skinner acknowledges his relatively informal writing style, which is intended to make the text more inclusive. However, one could argue that the exclusion of underlying scientific principles results in the obscuration of the science. Skinner asks readers to accept his analyses as proof; he argues that he takes a scientific perspective, “but this does not mean that the reader will need to know the details of a scientific analysis of behavior. A mere interpretation will suffice” (22). This may suggest that Skinner is attempting to sway readers by presenting his interpretations and analyses as facts.
