The Plantagenets: The Warrior Kings and Queens Who Made England

A fiefdom was a territory held by a lord who governed over it, often granted to them by a higher authority who retained an interest in their governance. For example, in negotiations with the pope, John agreed that England would become a fiefdom of the papacy, granting him a formal say in his governance. Although, in reality, the practical ramifications of this arrangement were few, and this relationship was not maintained.

Doing homage to a king or feudal lord meant performing a formal public act that acknowledged and honored their feudal overlordship, promising allegiance. For example, Henry II and other kings did formal homage to the French king for those continental territories that were not part of their English crown but independent states feudally tied to France. Often, this was a ceremonial, diplomatic practice; when Philip IV tried to enforce a more practical interpretation of this relationship, Edward I refused, opening hostilities between the countries. However, it was an important statement of hierarchy: Henry II used it to maintain peace through this show of respect; Edward’s attempts to force homage from Scotland caused protracted wars.

Homage could also be used for more complex tactical purposes. For example, Eleanor of Aquitaine’s homage to the French king for her duchy was a statement of its independence from England. She used Aquitaine’s feudal relationship with France to draw a boundary against any English erosion of its rights now that her husband controlled both the duchy and the English crown.

A vassal was a person in a feudal hierarchy who owed allegiance to the person above them. A vassal state was a state that owed its feudal allegiance to another state.

In modern politics, a parliament is a legislative body of governance. This specific use of the term emerged gradually, as the role of parliaments became defined.

This period was significant due to the emergence of the parliament as a part of English governance. Assemblies and councils of magnates and prelates were often gathered by the monarch to support through advice or for negotiations. In particular, kings summoned gatherings to request funding, often granting other concessions in advance such as judicial reforms or a charter of rights.

The term parliament was first used in the reign of Henry III, by which time the king formally required parliamentary consent to levy taxation. By the end of this period, two parliaments oversaw the replacement of one king with another, and the Commons (wealthy citizens who were not nobility) also had parliamentary representation, submitting demands and holding negotiations through John of Gaunt for example.

A charter is a formal acknowledgment and guarantee of rights and privileges, issued by the sovereign power of a state. Crucial charters during this period include the Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forests, which set important precedents for seeking to establish rights that superseded the king’s power. They were reissued, often with amendments, throughout this period, showing that they were not initially constitutionally invulnerable. However, this also shows that they continued to be important focal points for the gradual negotiation of constitutional rights and structures, resulting in long-term shifts over time.

A dictum is a formal statement from an authoritative source, often outlining a principle or proposition. The Dictum of Kenilworth was a pronouncement that outlined terms for reconciliation between the royal government and the rebels after the Second Barons' War. Three magnates and three prelates produced it and represented a compromise, asserting a mixture of royal and baronial rights.

The courts of assize, or the assizes, were traveling courts held at intervals around England and Wales. They were established in the 12th century by Henry II and abolished and replaced with a new system in 1972. England and Wales were divided into sections under the jurisdiction of different country towns, where courts were held. Judges traveled to sit on these, usually from the permanent London courts.

An assize can also refer to a statute or judgment itself. Henry II’s Assize of Clarendon in 1166 was a significant milestone in the development of English law and judicial structures. It established assize courts and contributed to the evolution of trial by jury in common law countries worldwide.

The eyres, or general eyres, was the name given to the circuit traveled by an itinerant royal justice (justice in eyre) or their court. The monarch could also sit as a justice in eyre; this practice was popular with John. Eyres represented an extension of royal and central government into localities; they could examine the financial resources of a shire or the holdings of a vassal.

A Papal Interdict was an ecclesiastical censure from the Catholic Church that limited access to the rites and services of the church but did not formally expel its recipients from the church. This could be issued over an entire territory; its threat was a reminder of the papacy’s spiritual dominion throughout the kingdoms of the Christian world and a means of enforcing papal influence.

In 1208, the pope placed the whole of England under an Interdict which lasted six years in response to John’s refusal to accept his appointment to the Archbishop of Canterbury. It enforced church closure, forbade the administration of the sacraments, and barred churchyard burials. John took it as an opportunity to seize church revenue, but it contributed to social problems, discontent, and instability that became serious threats to him.

Excommunication was an official ejection from the Catholic Church, barring access to sacraments and services. Unlike interdiction, it was generally a sentence against an individual. However, it was similarly used to threaten or punish secular leaders during this period and assert the pope’s spiritual dominion over them.

As notions of divine right were interwoven with kingship and lordship, this undermined an important element of their status, as well as punishing their soul. In 1208, the pope excommunicated John (alongside the interdiction of England), revoking this five years later when John, under political pressure and facing dissent, began negotiations with the papacy.